priorityQueue_tpl.h

Go to the documentation of this file.

/**
 *
 *   Copyright (c) 2005-2021 by Pierre-Henri WUILLEMIN(@LIP6) & Christophe GONZALES(@AMU)
 *   info_at_agrum_dot_org
 *
 *  This library is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
 *  it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
 *  the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
 *  (at your option) any later version.
 *
 *  This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
 *  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
 *  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
 *  GNU Lesser General Public License for more details.
 *
 *  You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public License
 *  along with this library.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
 *
 */


/**
 * @file
 * @brief template implementations of priority queues
 *
 * @author Christophe GONZALES(@AMU) and Pierre-Henri WUILLEMIN(@LIP6)
 */

#include <agrum/tools/core/priorityQueue.h>

namespace gum {

  // ===========================================================================
  // ===             GENERAL IMPLEMENTATIION OF PRIORITY QUEUES              ===
  // ===========================================================================

  // basic constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     Cmp  compare,
     Size capacity) :
      _indices_(capacity >> 1, true, true),
      _cmp_(compare) {
    _heap_.reserve(capacity);

    GUM_CONSTRUCTOR(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // initializer list constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     std::initializer_list< std::pair< Val, Priority > > list) :
      _indices_(Size(list.size()) / 2, true, true) {
    // fill the queue
    _heap_.reserve(list.size());
    for (const auto& elt: list) {
      insert(elt.first, elt.second);
    }

    GUM_CONSTRUCTOR(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // copy constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >& from) :
      _heap_(from._heap_),
      _indices_(from._indices_), _nb_elements_(from._nb_elements_), _cmp_(from._cmp_) {
    // fill the heap structure
    for (const auto& elt: _indices_) {
      _heap_[elt.second].second = &(elt.first);
    }

    GUM_CONS_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // generalized copy constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  template < typename OtherAlloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, OtherAlloc, Gen >& from) :
      _indices_(from._indices_),
      _nb_elements_(from._nb_elements_), _cmp_(from._cmp_) {
    // fill the heap structure
    if (_nb_elements_) {
      _heap_.reserve(from._heap_.size());
      for (const auto& elt: from._heap_) {
        _heap_.push_back(elt);
      }
      for (const auto& elt: _indices_) {
        _heap_[elt.second].second = &(elt.first);
      }
    }

    GUM_CONS_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // move constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >&& from) :
      _heap_(std::move(from._heap_)),
      _indices_(std::move(from._indices_)), _nb_elements_(std::move(from._nb_elements_)),
      _cmp_(std::move(from._cmp_)) {
    GUM_CONS_MOV(PriorityQueueImplementation)
  }

  // destructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::~PriorityQueueImplementation() {
    GUM_DESTRUCTOR(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // copy operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::operator=(
        const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >& from) {
    // avoid self assignment
    if (this != &from) {
      GUM_OP_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation)

      try {
        // set the comparison function
        _cmp_ = from._cmp_;

        // copy the indices and the heap
        _indices_     = from._indices_;
        _heap_        = from._heap_;
        _nb_elements_ = from._nb_elements_;

        // restore the link between  _indices_ and  _heap_
        for (const auto& elt: _indices_) {
          _heap_[elt.second].second = &(elt.first);
        }
      } catch (...) {
        _heap_.clear();
        _indices_.clear();
        _nb_elements_ = 0;

        throw;
      }
    }

    return *this;
  }

  // generalized copy operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  template < typename OtherAlloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::operator=(
        const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, OtherAlloc, Gen >& from) {
    GUM_OP_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation);

    try {
      // set the comprison function
      _cmp_ = from._cmp_;

      // copy the indices and the heap
      _indices_     = from._indices_;
      _nb_elements_ = from._nb_elements_;

      _heap_.clear();
      if (_nb_elements_) {
        _heap_.reserve(from._heap_.size());
        for (const auto& elt: from._heap_) {
          _heap_.push_back(elt);
        }
        for (const auto& elt: _indices_) {
          _heap_[elt.second].second = &(elt.first);
        }
      }
    } catch (...) {
      _heap_.clear();
      _indices_.clear();
      _nb_elements_ = 0;

      throw;
    }

    return *this;
  }

  // move operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::operator=(
        PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >&& from) {
    // avoid self assignment
    if (this != &from) {
      GUM_OP_MOV(PriorityQueueImplementation)

      _indices_     = std::move(from._indices_);
      _heap_        = std::move(from._heap_);
      _cmp_         = std::move(from._cmp_);
      _nb_elements_ = std::move(from._nb_elements_);
    }

    return *this;
  }

  // returns the element at the top of the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE const Val& PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::top() const {
    if (!_nb_elements_) { GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "empty priority queue") }

    return *(_heap_[0].second);
  }

  // returns the priority of the top element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE const Priority&
               PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::topPriority() const {
    if (!_nb_elements_) { GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "empty priority queue") }

    return _heap_[0].first;
  }

  // returns the number of elements in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE Size PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::size() const noexcept {
    return _nb_elements_;
  }

  // return the size of the array storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE Size
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::capacity() const noexcept {
    return Size(_heap_.capacity());
  }

  // changes the size of the array storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::resize(Size new_size) {
    if (new_size < _nb_elements_) return;

    _heap_.reserve(new_size);
    _indices_.resize(new_size / 2);
  }

  // removes all the elements from the queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::clear() {
    _nb_elements_ = 0;
    _heap_.clear();
    _indices_.clear();
  }

  // removes the element at index elt from the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::eraseByPos(Size index) {
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) return;

    // remove the element from the hashtable
    _indices_.erase(*(_heap_[index].second));

    // put the last element at the "index" location
    std::pair< Priority, const Val* > last = std::move(_heap_[_nb_elements_ - 1]);
    _heap_.pop_back();
    --_nb_elements_;

    if (!_nb_elements_ || (index == _nb_elements_)) return;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = index;

    for (Size j = (index << 1) + 1; j < _nb_elements_; i = j, j = (j << 1) + 1) {
      // let j be the max child
      if ((j + 1 < _nb_elements_) && _cmp_(_heap_[j + 1].first, _heap_[j].first)) ++j;

      // if "last" is lower than heap[j], "last" must be stored at index i
      if (_cmp_(last.first, _heap_[j].first)) break;

      // else pull up the jth node
      _heap_[i]                      = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
    }

    // put "last" back into the heap
    _heap_[i]                      = std::move(last);
    _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
  }

  // removes a given element from the priority queue (but does not return it)
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::erase(const Val& val) {
    try {
      eraseByPos(_indices_[val]);
    } catch (NotFound&) {}
  }

  // removes the top of the priority queue (but does not return it)
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::eraseTop() {
    eraseByPos(0);
  }

  // removes the top element from the priority queue and return it
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE Val PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::pop() {
    if (!_nb_elements_) { GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "empty priority queue") }

    Val v = *(_heap_[0].second);
    eraseByPos(0);

    return v;
  }

  // returns a hashtable the keys of which are the values stored in the queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE const HashTable< Val, Size >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::allValues() const noexcept {
    return reinterpret_cast< const HashTable< Val, Size >& >(_indices_);
  }

  // inserts a new (a copy) element in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE Size PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::insert(
     const Val&      val,
     const Priority& priority) {
    // create the entry in the indices hashtable (if the element already exists,
    //  _indices_.insert will raise a Duplicateelement exception)
    typename HashTable< Val, Size, IndexAllocator >::value_type& new_elt = _indices_.insert(val, 0);

    try {
      _heap_.push_back(std::pair< Priority, const Val* >(priority, &new_elt.first));
    } catch (...) {
      _indices_.erase(val);
      throw;
    }

    std::pair< Priority, const Val* > new_heap_val = std::move(_heap_[_nb_elements_]);
    ++_nb_elements_;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = _nb_elements_ - 1;

    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_heap_val.first, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                      = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
    }

    // put the new bucket into the heap
    _heap_[i].first  = std::move(new_heap_val.first);
    _heap_[i].second = &(new_elt.first);
    new_elt.second   = i;

    return i;
  }

  // inserts by move a new element in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE Size
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::insert(Val&&      val,
                                                                           Priority&& priority) {
    // create the entry in the indices hashtable (if the element already exists,
    //  _indices_.insert will raise a Duplicateelement exception)
    typename HashTable< Val, Size, IndexAllocator >::value_type& new_elt
       = _indices_.insert(std::move(val), 0);

    try {
      _heap_.push_back(std::pair< Priority, const Val* >(std::move(priority), &(new_elt.first)));
    } catch (...) {
      _indices_.erase(new_elt.first);
      throw;
    }

    std::pair< Priority, const Val* > new_heap_val = std::move(_heap_[_nb_elements_]);
    ++_nb_elements_;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = _nb_elements_ - 1;

    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_heap_val.first, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                      = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
    }

    // put the new bucket into the heap
    _heap_[i].first  = std::move(new_heap_val.first);
    _heap_[i].second = &(new_elt.first);
    new_elt.second   = i;

    return i;
  }

  // emplace a new element into the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  template < typename... Args >
  INLINE Size
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::emplace(Args&&... args) {
    std::pair< Val, Priority > new_elt
       = std::make_pair< Val, Priority >(std::forward< Args >(args)...);
    return insert(std::move(new_elt.first), std::move(new_elt.second));
  }

  // indicates whether the priority queue is empty
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE bool
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::empty() const noexcept {
    return (_nb_elements_ == 0);
  }

  // indicates whether the priority queue contains a given value
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE bool
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::contains(const Val& val) const {
    return _indices_.exists(val);
  }

  // returns the element at position "index" in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE const Val&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::operator[](Size index) const {
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }

    return *(_heap_[index].second);
  }

  // displays the content of the queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  std::string PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::toString() const {
    bool              deja = false;
    std::stringstream stream;
    stream << "[";

    for (Size i = 0; i != _nb_elements_; ++i, deja = true) {
      if (deja) stream << " , ";

      stream << "(" << _heap_[i].first << " , " << *(_heap_[i].second) << ")";
    }

    stream << "]";

    return stream.str();
  }

  // changes the size of the internal structure storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  Size PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::setPriorityByPos(
     Size            index,
     const Priority& new_priority) {
    // check whether the element the priority of which should be changed exists
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }

    // get the element itself
    const Val* val = _heap_[index].second;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = index;

    // move val upward if needed
    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                      = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
    }

    // move val downward if needed
    for (Size j = (i << 1) + 1; j < _nb_elements_; i = j, j = (j << 1) + 1) {
      // let j be the max child
      if ((j + 1 < _nb_elements_) && _cmp_(_heap_[j + 1].first, _heap_[j].first)) ++j;

      // if "val" is lower than heap[j], "val" must be stored at index i
      if (_cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first)) break;

      // else pull up the jth node
      _heap_[i]                      = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
    }

    // update the index of val
    _heap_[i].first  = new_priority;
    _heap_[i].second = val;
    _indices_[*val]  = i;

    return i;
  }

  // changes the size of the internal structure storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  Size PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::setPriorityByPos(
     Size       index,
     Priority&& new_priority) {
    // check whether the element the priority of which should be changed exists
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }

    // get the element itself
    const Val* val = _heap_[index].second;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = index;

    // move val upward if needed
    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                      = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
    }

    // move val downward if needed
    for (Size j = (i << 1) + 1; j < _nb_elements_; i = j, j = (j << 1) + 1) {
      // let j be the max child
      if ((j + 1 < _nb_elements_) && _cmp_(_heap_[j + 1].first, _heap_[j].first)) ++j;

      // if "val" is lower than heap[j], "val" must be stored at index i
      if (_cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first)) break;

      // else pull up the jth node
      _heap_[i]                      = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[*(_heap_[i].second)] = i;
    }

    // update the index of val
    _heap_[i].first  = std::move(new_priority);
    _heap_[i].second = val;
    _indices_[*val]  = i;

    return i;
  }

  // modifies the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::setPriority(
     const Val&      elt,
     const Priority& new_priority) {
    setPriorityByPos(_indices_[elt], new_priority);
  }

  // modifies the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::setPriority(
     const Val& elt,
     Priority&& new_priority) {
    setPriorityByPos(_indices_[elt], std::move(new_priority));
  }

  // returns the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE const Priority&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::priority(const Val& elt) const {
    return _heap_[_indices_[elt]].first;
  }

  // returns the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc, bool Gen >
  INLINE const Priority&
               PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, Gen >::priorityByPos(
        Size index) const {
    if (index > _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }
    return _heap_[index].first;
  }

  // ===========================================================================
  // ===          SCALAR OPTIMIZED IMPLEMENTATION OF PRIORITY QUEUES         ===
  // ===========================================================================

  // basic constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
        Cmp  compare,
        Size capacity) :
      _indices_(capacity >> 1, true, true),
      _cmp_(compare) {
    _heap_.reserve(capacity);

    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONSTRUCTOR(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // initializer list constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     std::initializer_list< std::pair< Val, Priority > > list) :
      _indices_(Size(list.size()) / 2, true, true) {
    // fill the queue
    _heap_.reserve(list.size());
    for (const auto& elt: list) {
      insert(elt.first, elt.second);
    }

    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONSTRUCTOR(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // copy constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >& from) :
      _heap_(from._heap_),
      _indices_(from._indices_), _nb_elements_(from._nb_elements_), _cmp_(from._cmp_) {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONS_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // generalized copy constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  template < typename OtherAlloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, OtherAlloc, true >& from) :
      _indices_(from._indices_),
      _nb_elements_(from._nb_elements_), _cmp_(from._cmp_) {
    // fill the heap structure
    if (_nb_elements_) {
      _heap_.reserve(from._heap_.size());
      for (const auto& elt: from._heap_) {
        _heap_.push_back(elt);
      }
    }

    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONS_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // move constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::PriorityQueueImplementation(
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >&& from) :
      _heap_(std::move(from._heap_)),
      _indices_(std::move(from._indices_)), _nb_elements_(std::move(from._nb_elements_)),
      _cmp_(std::move(from._cmp_)) {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONS_MOV(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // destructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::~PriorityQueueImplementation() {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_DESTRUCTOR(PriorityQueueImplementation);
  }

  // copy operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::operator=(
        const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >& from) {
    // avoid self assignment
    if (this != &from) {
      // for debugging purposes
      GUM_OP_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation);

      try {
        // set the comparison function
        _cmp_ = from._cmp_;

        // copy the indices and the heap
        _indices_     = from._indices_;
        _heap_        = from._heap_;
        _nb_elements_ = from._nb_elements_;
      } catch (...) {
        _heap_.clear();
        _indices_.clear();
        _nb_elements_ = 0;

        throw;
      }
    }

    return *this;
  }

  // generalized copy operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  template < typename OtherAlloc >
  PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::operator=(
        const PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, OtherAlloc, true >& from) {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_OP_CPY(PriorityQueueImplementation);

    try {
      // set the comprison function
      _cmp_ = from._cmp_;

      // copy the indices and the heap
      _indices_     = from._indices_;
      _nb_elements_ = from._nb_elements_;

      _heap_.clear();
      if (_nb_elements_) {
        _heap_.reserve(from._heap_.size());
        for (const auto& elt: from._heap_) {
          _heap_.push_back(elt);
        }
      }
    } catch (...) {
      _heap_.clear();
      _indices_.clear();
      _nb_elements_ = 0;

      throw;
    }

    return *this;
  }

  // move operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::operator=(
        PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >&& from) {
    // avoid self assignment
    if (this != &from) {
      // for debugging purposes
      GUM_OP_MOV(PriorityQueueImplementation);

      _indices_     = std::move(from._indices_);
      _heap_        = std::move(from._heap_);
      _cmp_         = std::move(from._cmp_);
      _nb_elements_ = std::move(from._nb_elements_);
    }

    return *this;
  }

  // returns the element at the top of the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE const Val& PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::top() const {
    if (!_nb_elements_) { GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "empty priority queue") }

    return _heap_[0].second;
  }

  // returns the priority of the top element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE const Priority&
               PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::topPriority() const {
    if (!_nb_elements_) { GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "empty priority queue") }

    return _heap_[0].first;
  }

  // returns the number of elements in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE Size
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::size() const noexcept {
    return _nb_elements_;
  }

  // return the size of the array storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE Size
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::capacity() const noexcept {
    return Size(_heap_.capacity());
  }

  // changes the size of the array storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE void
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::resize(Size new_size) {
    if (new_size < _nb_elements_) return;

    _heap_.reserve(new_size);
    _indices_.resize(new_size / 2);
  }

  // removes all the elements from the queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::clear() {
    _nb_elements_ = 0;
    _heap_.clear();
    _indices_.clear();
  }

  // removes the element at index elt from the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::eraseByPos(Size index) {
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) return;

    // remove the element from the hashtable
    _indices_.erase(_heap_[index].second);

    // put the last element at the "index" location
    std::pair< Priority, Val > last = std::move(_heap_[_nb_elements_ - 1]);
    _heap_.pop_back();
    --_nb_elements_;

    if (!_nb_elements_ || (index == _nb_elements_)) return;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = index;

    for (Size j = (index << 1) + 1; j < _nb_elements_; i = j, j = (j << 1) + 1) {
      // let j be the max child
      if ((j + 1 < _nb_elements_) && _cmp_(_heap_[j + 1].first, _heap_[j].first)) ++j;

      // if "last" is lower than heap[j], "last" must be stored at index i
      if (_cmp_(last.first, _heap_[j].first)) break;

      // else pull up the jth node
      _heap_[i]                   = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
    }

    // put "last" back into the heap
    _heap_[i]                   = std::move(last);
    _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
  }

  // removes a given element from the priority queue (but does not return it)
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::erase(Val val) {
    try {
      eraseByPos(_indices_[val]);
    } catch (NotFound&) {}
  }

  // removes the top of the priority queue (but does not return it)
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::eraseTop() {
    eraseByPos(0);
  }

  // removes the top element from the priority queue and return it
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE Val PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::pop() {
    if (!_nb_elements_) { GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "empty priority queue") }

    Val v = _heap_[0].second;
    eraseByPos(0);

    return v;
  }

  // returns a hashtable the keys of which are the values stored in the queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE const HashTable< Val, Size >&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::allValues() const noexcept {
    return reinterpret_cast< const HashTable< Val, Size >& >(_indices_);
  }

  // inserts a new (a copy) element in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE Size PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::insert(
     Val             val,
     const Priority& priority) {
    // create the entry in the indices hashtable (if the element already exists,
    //  _indices_.insert will raise a Duplicateelement exception)
    typename HashTable< Val, Size, IndexAllocator >::value_type& new_elt = _indices_.insert(val, 0);

    try {
      _heap_.push_back(std::pair< Priority, Val >(priority, val));
    } catch (...) {
      _indices_.erase(val);
      throw;
    }

    std::pair< Priority, Val > new_heap_val = std::move(_heap_[_nb_elements_]);
    ++_nb_elements_;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = _nb_elements_ - 1;

    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_heap_val.first, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                   = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
    }

    // put the new bucket into the heap
    _heap_[i].first  = std::move(new_heap_val.first);
    _heap_[i].second = val;
    new_elt.second   = i;

    return i;
  }

  // inserts by move a new element in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE Size
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::insert(Val        val,
                                                                            Priority&& priority) {
    // create the entry in the indices hashtable (if the element already exists,
    //  _indices_.insert will raise a Duplicateelement exception)
    typename HashTable< Val, Size, IndexAllocator >::value_type& new_elt = _indices_.insert(val, 0);

    try {
      _heap_.push_back(std::pair< Priority, Val >(std::move(priority), val));
    } catch (...) {
      _indices_.erase(val);
      throw;
    }

    std::pair< Priority, Val > new_heap_val = std::move(_heap_[_nb_elements_]);
    ++_nb_elements_;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = _nb_elements_ - 1;

    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_heap_val.first, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                   = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
    }

    // put the new bucket into the heap
    _heap_[i].first  = std::move(new_heap_val.first);
    _heap_[i].second = val;
    new_elt.second   = i;

    return i;
  }

  // emplace a new element into the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  template < typename... Args >
  INLINE Size
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::emplace(Args&&... args) {
    std::pair< Val, Priority > new_elt
       = std::make_pair< Val, Priority >(std::forward< Args >(args)...);
    return insert(new_elt.first, std::move(new_elt.second));
  }

  // indicates whether the priority queue is empty
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE bool
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::empty() const noexcept {
    return (_nb_elements_ == 0);
  }

  // indicates whether the priority queue contains a given value
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE bool
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::contains(Val val) const {
    return _indices_.exists(val);
  }

  // returns the element at position "index" in the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE const Val&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::operator[](Size index) const {
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }

    return _heap_[index].second;
  }

  // displays the content of the queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  std::string PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::toString() const {
    bool              deja = false;
    std::stringstream stream;
    stream << "[";

    for (Size i = 0; i != _nb_elements_; ++i, deja = true) {
      if (deja) stream << " , ";

      stream << "(" << _heap_[i].first << " , " << _heap_[i].second << ")";
    }

    stream << "]";

    return stream.str();
  }

  // changes the size of the internal structure storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  Size PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::setPriorityByPos(
     Size            index,
     const Priority& new_priority) {
    // check whether the element the priority of which should be changed exists
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }

    // get the element itself
    Val val = _heap_[index].second;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = index;

    // move val upward if needed
    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                   = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
    }

    // move val downward if needed
    for (Size j = (i << 1) + 1; j < _nb_elements_; i = j, j = (j << 1) + 1) {
      // let j be the max child
      if ((j + 1 < _nb_elements_) && _cmp_(_heap_[j + 1].first, _heap_[j].first)) ++j;

      // if "val" is lower than heap[j], "val" must be stored at index i
      if (_cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first)) break;

      // else pull up the jth node
      _heap_[i]                   = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
    }

    // update the index of val
    _heap_[i].first  = new_priority;
    _heap_[i].second = val;
    _indices_[val]   = i;

    return i;
  }

  // changes the size of the internal structure storing the priority queue
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  Size PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::setPriorityByPos(
     Size       index,
     Priority&& new_priority) {
    // check whether the element the priority of which should be changed exists
    if (index >= _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }

    // get the element itself
    Val val = _heap_[index].second;

    // restore the heap property
    Size i = index;

    // move val upward if needed
    for (Size j = (i - 1) >> 1; i && _cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first);
         i = j, j = (j - 1) >> 1) {
      _heap_[i]                   = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
    }

    // move val downward if needed
    for (Size j = (i << 1) + 1; j < _nb_elements_; i = j, j = (j << 1) + 1) {
      // let j be the max child
      if ((j + 1 < _nb_elements_) && _cmp_(_heap_[j + 1].first, _heap_[j].first)) ++j;

      // if "val" is lower than heap[j], "val" must be stored at index i
      if (_cmp_(new_priority, _heap_[j].first)) break;

      // else pull up the jth node
      _heap_[i]                   = std::move(_heap_[j]);
      _indices_[_heap_[i].second] = i;
    }

    // update the index of val
    _heap_[i].first  = std::move(new_priority);
    _heap_[i].second = val;
    _indices_[val]   = i;

    return i;
  }

  // modifies the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::setPriority(
     Val             elt,
     const Priority& new_priority) {
    setPriorityByPos(_indices_[elt], new_priority);
  }

  // modifies the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  void PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::setPriority(
     Val        elt,
     Priority&& new_priority) {
    setPriorityByPos(_indices_[elt], std::move(new_priority));
  }

  // returns the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE const Priority&
     PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::priority(Val elt) const {
    return _heap_[_indices_[elt]].first;
  }

  // returns the priority of a given element
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE const Priority&
               PriorityQueueImplementation< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc, true >::priorityByPos(
        Size index) const {
    if (index > _nb_elements_) {
      GUM_ERROR(NotFound, "not enough elements in the PriorityQueueImplementation")
    }
    return _heap_[index].first;
  }

  // ===========================================================================
  // ===                           PRIORITY QUEUES                           ===
  // ===========================================================================

  // basic constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::PriorityQueue(Cmp cmp, Size capacity) :
      PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::Implementation(cmp, capacity) {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONSTRUCTOR(PriorityQueue);
  }

  // initializer list constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::PriorityQueue(
     std::initializer_list< std::pair< Val, Priority > > list) :
      PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::Implementation{list} {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONSTRUCTOR(PriorityQueue);
  }

  // copy constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::PriorityQueue(
     const PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >& from) :
      PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::Implementation(from) {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONS_CPY(PriorityQueue);
  }

  // generalized copy constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  template < typename OtherAlloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::PriorityQueue(
     const PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, OtherAlloc >& from) :
      PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::Implementation(from) {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONS_CPY(PriorityQueue);
  }

  // move constructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::PriorityQueue(
     PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >&& from) :
      PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::Implementation(std::move(from)) {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_CONS_MOV(PriorityQueue);
  }

  // destructor
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::~PriorityQueue() {
    // for debugging purposes
    GUM_DESTRUCTOR(PriorityQueue);
  }

  // copy operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >&
     PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::operator=(
        const PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >& from) {
    Implementation::operator=(from);
    return *this;
  }

  // generalized copy operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  template < typename OtherAlloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >&
     PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::operator=(
        const PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, OtherAlloc >& from) {
    Implementation::operator=(from);
    return *this;
  }

  // move operator
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >&
     PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >::operator=(
        PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >&& from) {
    Implementation::operator=(std::move(from));
    return *this;
  }

  // A \c << operator for priority queues
  template < typename Val, typename Priority, typename Cmp, typename Alloc >
  INLINE std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream&                                     stream,
                                  const PriorityQueue< Val, Priority, Cmp, Alloc >& queue) {
    stream << queue.toString();
    return stream;
  }

} /* namespace gum */